Saturday, June 13, 2026

"Joy Cometh in the Morning" -- U.S. Supreme Court Decisions in Gay Marriage Cases (United States v. Windsor and Obergefell v. Hodges)

Originally posted on June 26, 2013 & June 26, 2015.


A parade with flagsPhoto credit: St. Augustine Record




Happy Gay Pride Day, St. Augustine, St. Augustine Beach and St. Johns County., Florida https://cleanupcityofstaugustine.blogspot.com/2013/06/in-words-of-former-south-african_26.html

In the words of former South African President Nelson Mandela about
South Africa,
today, the United States of America ia a "Rainbow Nation."

(Photo credit: St. Augustine Record)





By Ed Slavin
(c) Copyright Ed Slavin 2013, 2015 & 2026, All Rights Reserved


 “Joy cometh in the morning,” the scripture says, as exemplified by two Supreme Court decisions on the mornings of June 26, 2013 and June 26, 2025, recognizing marriage equality and equal justice under law.
It's morning in America.

I've been waiting for this day since 1974, when I was a freshman at Georgetown University.
My improbable Gay American life begins anew today.

I did not “come out” until I was 31, had graduated law school and completed a judicial clerkship at the U.S. Department of labor in Washington, D.C. I was “afraid, very afraid.”

It was a time when Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgendered and Questioning (GLBTQ) people were routinely killed, expelled, fired, evicted and even arrested, with the living enduring depression, suicide and addictions as a result of society's group hatred. Hate ruled our world. Gays lived in fear, in the closet, afraid of “detection, rejection and infection” (and that was before AIDS). After all, thousands of Gays and Lesbians were fired on President Eisenhower's orders,

Those of us GLBT people under 40 years of age may have difficulty appreciating what a sea change this decision is in our country.  Why? Because they're much more tolerant than earlier generations, and more accepting of diversity.

“Queers don't have constitutional rights!” That's emphatically what our courts said until 2003, only ten years ago when our United States Supreme Court voted 6-3 to invalidate Texas' sodomy law in Lawrence v. Texas.

“Queers don't have constitutional rights!”: That's an exact quote from Anderson County, Tennessee Chancery Court Clerk and Master Forrest M. Bridges in 1983, referring to me, and Knoxville attorney Herbert Moncier's filing of my federal civil rights lawsuit against the City of Oak Ridge Tennessee for retaliatory false arrest. (The late Forrest Bridges was once indicted for receiving payments for a no-show job from John Marshall Purdy, Anderson County Clerk, who committed suicide in 1979. He bore malice to my publisher, the DA and me.) Forgive him.

The Supreme Court in June 1986 held that states could criminalize Gay sex, with Chief Justice Warren Burger writing the majority ruling, holding anti-Gay prejudice “has ancient roots” (so does every other prejudice). Justice Byron White rubbed it in when he actually wrote that to assert Gay rights under our Constitution was “at best facetious” When Hardwick v. Bowers was decided, I was in Memphis, studying for the Tennessee Bar Exam, and was deeply depressed at those harsh words in that erroneous holding (the sequela of vote-switching conservative Justice Lewis F. Powell falsely believing he had “never met a homosexual,” when he already had several Gay law clerks at the time).

Two landmark Supreme Court Gay marriage decisions roundly reject bigotry.

These Supreme Court decisions rightly agree with Justice Antonin Scalia, who in 2003, in dissent in Lawrence v. Texas, the Supreme Court decision decriminalizing consensual sodomy, declared that it would lead to Gay marriage. Thank you for pointing out what indeed had to happen, and it happened today.

And yes, Mr. Justice Scalia, our Constitution IS a “living document” and the reason I know that is my Memphis State University Constitutional and Civil Rights professors (Claude Coffman, former USDA Assistant General Counsel and Mississippi Law Review Editor and Barbara Kritchevsky, an “out” lesbian who taught me legal writing), both told me so, and they knew more than Scalia ever will about the Constitution and the conscience of our country).

In much the same way that slavery, Apartheid, Jim Crow segregation, anti-Antisemitism and sexism have been or are being kicked into history's dustbins, anti-Gay hatred is becoming a remnant of the past. Young people don't hate as much as their great-grandparents. What a joy.

I was the scion of working-class Democratic Roman Catholic parents – a WWII 82nd Airborne Divn. Trooper and a brilliant well-read secretary -- I struggled with my homosexuality for three decades. I figure I would have made a good spy, because I kept my secret.

I struggled through Boy Scout sexual harassment by older Boy Scouts demanding that the younger Scouts provide sexual favors (I rejected them and was guilt-ridden and afraid to tell my parents, staying in the Scouts and resenting the older Scouts' abuse of authority); to childhood diseases, one or both of which one learned doctor thought “psychosomatic” (arthritis and rheumatic fever); through college (where my college roommate and I were prematurely labeled as Gay and once “pennied” in our room by a couple of loudmouth drunks;  to Appalachia, where at the Appalachian Observer, I was possibly the world's most closeted newspaper editor, winning declassification of the world's largest mercury pollution event at the Y-12 Nuclear Weapons Plant, operated by Union Carbide, helping prod DOE to an environmental cleanup that will continue nationwide until 2043, when I will be 86 years old. I was working 80 hour weeks, also helping citizens to eject a corrupt school superintendent and prosecute a corrupt Sheriff. Then I went to law school at Memphis State University,still closeted (winning election as American Bar Association Law Student Division representative, then winning in 1985 ABA Law Student Division Assembly passage of eleven resolutions on law school reform, including nondiscrimination on the basis of sexual orientation). Then I left Tennessee and accepted an administrative-judicial clerkship, in Washington, D.C., for the U.S. Department of Labor Office of Administrative Law Judges.

In 1986, Federal employees could still be fired for being Gay – and were-- during the Administration of Ronald Wilson Reagan – who, until he learned Rock Hudson was Gay, let hundreds of thousands of people die of AIDS without adequate efforts to solve and halt the plague – reckless, feckless intolerance and indifference to the value of Gay peoples' lives.

In 1988, at the end of my judicial clerkship, I “came out” to my parents, who were lovely and accepting. My mother said Brian was “the kind of boy you want to invite home and bake cookies for (she always liked him the best). A couple of my relatives were wonderfully accepting but I was quite cruelly rejected by almost all of my other living relatives, not one of whom has  invited me to a single family gathering since 1988 -- 25 years. Several relatives' hate stares and coldness at my father's funeral are burned in my memory forever. How disappointing.

But as Wayne Dyer says, “Your friends are God's way of apologizing for your relatives.”

I “came out” to my parents at the conclusion of my judicial clerkships, at first for a marvelously outspoken openly Gay judge (Department of Labor Administrative Law Judge Charles P. Rippey), then also for Nahum Litt, then the Chief Administrative Law Judge of the U.S. Department of Labor, whom I served as a policy adviser.

I “came out” to Chief Judge Litt, who helped us pass a sexual orientation nondiscrimination resolution in the American Bar Association House of Delegates, of which he was then a member. What a swell victory, and achieved so quickly – and one that had twice before eluded Gay activist-ideologues until I suggested the winning compromise. Future ABA President Jack Curtin of the Litigation section followed our suggestion, taking the definition from the District of Columbia Human Rights Act: “Sexual orientation means heterosexuality, bisexuality and homosexuality” – hence, no bogus arguments about pederasty or bestiality. (A St. Louis delegate was heard to quip, “When it comes to bestiality, just say, WHOA!”)

During 1989-1990, I represented the prevailing plaintiff Duane David Rinde in the Woodward & Lothrop Gay case, which resulted in equal discount benefits for the partners of GLBTQ employees at thirty department stores in six states and D.C. (Woodward & Lothrop and John Wanamaker), Then I was asked to write the first article on Gay marriage for an ABA publication (“What Makes A Marriage Legal,” Human Rights, 1991), one of eight articles I published in American Bar Association publications (three in the Judges' Journal). A Gay marriage bibliography shows that this was the first article on Gay marriage in an American Bar Association publication. It's probably one of the reasons I was targeted for disciplinary actions as an attorney for courageous environmental and nuclear whistleblowers in nine states, including nine federal administrative law judges. I'm glad I wrote the article, no matter what the consequences.

In 2004, I lost my law license in the wake of the homophobic Chief Administrative Law Judge of the U.S. Department of Labor, John Michael Vittone, who was active in ABA circles and opposed the 1989 Gay rights resolution Judge Litt helped us pass in the House of Dlegates.

In 2005, I attended former Reagan UNESCO Ambassador Alan Keyes' Nuremberg-style anti-Gay marriage hate rally, which County Commissioners allowed him to hold rent-free in our St. Johns County Convention Center at the World Golf Village. Inspired, I did the historical research and lawyer recruitment that helped St. Augustine's Gay Pride committee leaders to win a federal court order under the First Amendment requiring flying of Rainbow flags in honor of Gay Pride on our historic St. Augustine, Florida Bridge of Lions in 2005 (a First Amendment victory that was achieved by showing GLBTQ history, including the 1566 order of a Gay French interpreter of the Guale Indian language on orders of our City's founder, because the translator was a “Sodomite and a Lutheran” in an intimate relationship with the son of the cacique (chief).

Listening to the Supreme Court oral arguments on the Gay marriage cases in March 2013, and reading articles in anticipation of today's Supreme Court decisions, I am proud of our local governments, including our Sheriff, State's Attorney, Mosquito Control District and Cities of St. Augustine and St. Augustine Beach -- all have adopted sexual orientation nondiscrimination rules, commencing with the Mosquito Control District in 2009. That's eighteen local public officials. Every single vote has been unanimous and bipartisan – St. Augustine amended its Fair Housing ordinance in 2012, St. Augustine Beach added one in 2013, also adding an employment nondiscrimination ordinance. This is in sharp and marked contrast with Jacksonville, Florida (formerly known as “Cowford”), where months of bigotry halted efforts to add “sexual orientation” and “gender identity” to that City's human rights ordinances. As Folio Weekly quoted me last year, decisive St. Augustine commissioners decided to protect Gay rights in less time than it took people in Jacksonville to “clear their throats.”

Reading today's Supreme Court decisions, I remember all of the pain that being Gay brings. \

The night Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was murdered, Senator Robert Kennedy said, “My favorite poet was Aeschylus, who said, “In our sleep, pain which cannot forget falls drop by drop on the heart until, in our own despair, against our will, comes wisdom through the awful grace of God.” Here are 24 images of that “pain” carved in my brain – whatever “brain boogers” I may have I owe to these experiences:

1.Seeing (and almost walking into) a bloody crime scene sidewalk in DuPont Circle, on P Street in Washington, D.C., after the knifing hate crime murder of a Gay man. There but for the grace of God, go you or me.

2.Learning that GLBTQ teens have thrice the suicide rate of straight teens and watching unenlightened legislators try to bar teachers from helping (with “don't say Gay” laws).

3.Watching Georgetown University, my alma mater, fight for years recognizing a Gay student group, spending $1.2 million fighting to the highest court in the District of Columbia to deny an office, mailbox and student activity fees; it then almost destroy our alma mater's future by appealing to the Supreme Court (Williams and Connolly partner Edward Bennett Williams wanted to ague the case personally, which would have placed us on a level with Bob Jones University and other institutional bigots in Supreme Court case law. (We won; Georgetown did not seek certiorari, thanks to the timely intervention of our Gay and Lesbian Alumni/ae of Georgetown University)

4.Watching President Bill Clinton sign the 1993 “Don't Ask, Don't Tell” law. (He has since apologized; the law has been repealed under President Obama). I later wrote an cover story for Out in the City (former Jacksonville GLBTQ publication) about a Navy nuclear submarine chief who successfully challenged his removal, which retired U.S. District Judge Stanley K. Sporkin told me was one of the ten judicial decisions of which he was most proud).

5.Watching President Billl Clinton sign the 1995 Defense of Marriage Act, which is today declared unconstitutional. (He has since apologized and DOMA was held unconstitutional today).

6.Watching an unapologetic, smirking President George W. Bush win re-election in 2004 on a wave of anti-Gay marriage sentiment, allied with organized bigots in states passing constitutional anti-Gay amendments, carving their bigotry into state constitutions.

7.Watching Governor Charles Crist support a state law constitutional amendment banning Gay marriage (he has since apologized).

8.Being brushed off condescendingly by St. Augustine Record Editor Peter Ellis on the subject of Gay marriage, as if his (or advertisers;) subjective value preferences should dictate what 200,000 St. Johns Countians are allowed to read and think and feel.

9.Reading the 32 very long pages of anti-Gay hatred in the St. Augustine Record's “Talk of the Town” website in 2005 directed against Gays in response to the Bridge of Lions Rainbow flags, some of them written by public officials under NICs – then watching City Commissioners vote 3-1 to ban all but government flags from our Bridge of Lions (Commissioner Boles, now our Mayor, was the only “no” vote, and I salute him).

10.Listening to a mediator refer to a male litigant as “she,” and not correcting himself.

11.Complaining about an unruly child in a Houston restaurant and being told by the putative parent that we only complained because we “can't have children.”:

12.Hearing a heterosexual fellow law student at Memphis State University in 1985 trash-talk about another student's assumed sexual orientation – doing so behind closed doors, in our Moot Court Board's chambers, in judging a Moot Court round -- trying to persuade two other Moot Court Board members to flunk his appellate argument because he was Gay. In response, my fellow Moot Court Board member and I both scored the Gay student somewhat higher than he deserved, thereby resulting in a mathematically correct score, the two of us correcting for the other student's bigotry.

13.Hearing other law students on a faculty recruitment panel discuss the assumed sexual orientation of an applicant (and correcting for the bigotry by reporting it to my mentor on the faculty)

14.Learning our Black Muslim office manager quit her job in 1990 over me because I was hired at the Government Accountability Project (after a year of my working there, she quit in protest of my permanent hiring, without having another job).

15.Seeing my Washington, D.C. public interest group employer refuse to press the George Washington University HMO over equal health care benefits for Brian, even after I won the Woodies' case and Brian lost his job.

16.Hearing anti-Gay jokes and taunts from schoolyard bullies and numerous and respected relatives, employers, and friends.

17.Reading the transcript of security clearance interviews where Gay people were quizzed for hours about their intimate affairs. (Thanks to Gay rights leader Dr. Franklin Kameny, fired as an government astronomer for being Gay in the 1950s --- and five days of House of Representatives investigative hearings in 1989-90 where whistleblowers, Gays and I testified, Presidents Clinton and Obama have banned such odious practices forever).

18.Seeing an illegal sign in the Oak Ridge Federal Building demanding that people report “criminal, homosexual or immoral conduct.” (Having it reported and removed – priceless).

19.Hearing a heterosexual friend say he was afraid to be seen swimming with me.

20.Hearing my respected high school teacher mentor talk about queers.

21.Learning my best high school friend never wanted to see or talk with me again after learning I was Gay during my clerkship.

22.Hearing some of my otherwise intelligent pre-law school employers emphatically ask, “Who would hire a queer lawyer? (And not saying a word).

23.Hearing that a rich and powerful Gay bank lawyer in 1982 told the local DA that he was afraid to drive into his East Tennessee hometown after neighbors learned he was Gay.

24.Reading news articles about heterosexual weddings, as my fellow Floridians, and residents of other American states, pass Nuremberg-style laws banning Gay marriage, enshrining hatred and discrimination into our state constitutions, using hatred and oodles of corporate cash, from sea to shining sea, to divide rather than unite us, in much the same manner as Adolf Hitler manipulated the laws for years to offend, hurt, insult, discriminate against and then kill millions of Jews.

Father, forgive them.

Every single one of them (well, except Hitler).

All people are created equal – our Founders in 1776 were the first people to write t down, in our Declaration of Independence, the 237th anniversary of which we shall celebrate on July 4th.

Today is a time for healing, across America.

Today, we are blessed to live in the UNITED States of America, with an independent judiciary. Today it is no longer bossed by bigots, bullies and braggarts (“Christian conservatives” who are neither) – the Supreme Court has rejected sputtering extralegal arguments by arrogant authoritarians who purport to love “freedom.”

In anger and depression at invidious discrimination and a world of hurtful people, I would often ask myself, for years, “Why does it have to hurt so much?”

Well, as of today, the United States Supreme Court has told the world, it was a violation of the Fifth Amendment for Congress to enact DOMA, for the express purpose of hurting Gays and Lesbians allowed to marry by their states, expressing “moral disapproval of homosexuality” in the wake of a Hawaiian court decision that promised that Gay marriage would become reality. “DOMA writes inequality into the entire United States Code.” Passing laws to hurt GLBTQ people is unconstitutional, the Court reaffirmed.

Meanwhile, the Court held that organized California bigots do not have legal standing to appeal the lower courts' ruling that California voters' Amendment 8 is unconstitutional. California's Attorney General and Governor did not appeal – carping harpies don't have Article III standing to contest the lower courts rulings: California Gay marriages will now resume.

Two wonderful victories for human rights from our United States Supreme Court: we won.

Today, it doesn't hurt so much any longer.

Former U.S. Department of Labor Chief Administrative Law Judge Nahum Litt, my mentor (now retired to New Smyrna Beach) just said, “You won.”

How sweet it is.

Our Supreme Court has today again said that GLBGT people are not to be treated as persona non grata.   Thanks to a cast of thousands, from Duane Rinde to today's prevailing plaintiffs, to David Boies and Ted Olsen, we are now "a Rainbow Nation."

Queers do have constitutional rights.

As former South African Nelson Mandela declared after Apartheid fell in South Africa; “courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace."  In 1978, Moral Majority” leader Rev. Jerry Falwell announced a "Thirty Years War against homosexuality."

In 1988, Republican Presidential candidate and former Nixon White House aide Patrick J. Buchanan declared a “culture war” at the Republican National Convention in Houston.

In 1996, dissenting in Romer v. Evans (invalidating Colorado voters' anti-Gay Nuremberg law, Amendment 2), Justice Scalia used the phrase “Kulturkampf,” German for “culture struggle.”.

Well, today the “Kulturkampf” is over. The “Thirty Years War” is over.

All thinking people now know the “Christian Right” was neither – it was asinine “AstroTurf” designed by bullies , using it in 1978 in election after election, using Gays as objects of fear and loathing to mobilize voters. Why? To defeat progressives at the polls, dividing our country.

Gays won the “culture war,” because hundreds of Fortune 500 corporations (after the Woodies case) supported us, including signing on to Supreme Court amicus curiae briefs.

We did it. Gays have beat the Ku Klux Klan and its allies (once again), just as we did here in St. Augustine in 2005 with our Rainbow flag case in Federal Court.

We will soon be seeing Gay marriage everywhere.

This is both equality and “Democracy on the March,” in the words of David Lillienthal's book about TVA.

“Let America be America again,” wrote the poet Langston Hughes.

“America, I'm putting my queer shoulder to the wheel,” wrote the poet Alan Ginsburg, in “Howl.”

Someday, we'll elect a President – I predict: she (or he) will be “fabulous.”

What do you reckon?

Ed Slavin
www.cleanupcityofstaugustine.blogspot.com
Box 3084
St. Augustine, Florida 32085-3084
904-377-4998

(c) Copyright Ed Slavin 2013, All Rights Reserved

Joy cometh in the morning: Jojoba helped end killing of sperm whales worldwide

"Joy cometh in the morning," the scripture says.  As I awoke on th morning of March 8, 2025, I re-read this 1975 article by New York Times science reporter John Noble Wilford. As an intern in Senator Ted Kennedy's office, the late Mary Murtagh asked me to help her end world whaling.  Commercial pelagic whaling is now banned by international treaty.  But as a freshman and sophomore intern, eventually paid $53/week for 30 hours work a week, I called the Senior Vice President of Archer-Daniels Midland, asking if ADM would buy jojoba.  At first he said there was "no market for it."  But jojoba is a seed plant whose oil is an almost exact duplicate for the oil of the endangered sperm whale, whose meat is inedible because of the oil in its head.   Jojoba grows in the desert bordering the U.S. and Mexico. It is now grown in some twelve countries. United States Department of Agriculture scientists, including Dr. Thomas K. Miwa and the National Research Council did pioneering work. EMK's office never did a press release, never wrote an appropriations bill, and never took credit for it.  As Ronald Reagan and Chief Judge Nahum Litt said in the 1980s, "there's no limit to what you can accomplish in life if you're not worried about taking credit for it.

"[T]he greatest service which can be rendered any country is to add an useful plant to it’s culture; especially a bread grain. next in value to bread is oil."
- Thomas Jefferson, Summary of Public Service, after September 2, 1800

From The New York Times:

Oil From a Shrub Found in Desert May Save the Sperm Whale


There grows in the desert of North America a lowly shrub that scientists say may save the sperm whale from extinction.

The shrub, which may be a source for a whale‐oil substitute, goes by the name of jojoba (pronounced ho‐Ho‐ba). A hardy evergreen, commonly found in the Sonoran Desert of Arizona, in California and in northern Mexico, the jojoba has thick, leathery, graygreen leaves and—more to the point—peanut‐size seeds that hold the promise of lubricating oil for industry and jobs for Indians.

The colorless, odorless oil of the jojoba seed is like no other known plant‐seed oil. It is not a fat, but a liquid wax. It has virtually the same chemistry as does sperm whale oil whose commercial value accounts in large part for that mammal's place on the endangered‐species list.

After evaluating recent research into the jojoba, the National Research Council the National Academy of Sciences released a report yesterday that recommended the widespread cultivation of the plant and the extraction of its oil as a substitute for sperm whale oil.

Sperm Oil Banned

The United States banned the importation of sperm oil, in late 1971, a move aimed at protecting the sperm whale. Stockpiles are now reaching, depletion, and no satisfactory synthetic substitutes have been found. Only last month, officials of the General Motors Corporation complained that removal of sperm oil from its automatic transmission fluids has led to serious corrosion problems.

The research council said that, evidence “has shown conclusively that jojoba oil can duplicate sperm oil performance as a high‐pressure lubricant.”

“As this is the major use for sperm oil, it is strong evidence that, technically, jojoba is a marketable commodity,” the council added.

If the council's recommendations are followed, the jojoba could become the nation's newest crop plant—“an important national materials resource,” the report said.

Although jojoba grows wild, with some plants living up to 200 years, the council said “the vagaries of weather and the remote, steep terrain, unkempt bushes and extreme heat during harvest time make it uneconomic to exploit” the natural stands.


Small experimental plantations have been established in southern California and Israel, the council said.

It takes five years for bushy jojoba plant to mature and bear harvestable quantities of seed. The plant at full growth, stands 7 to 10 feet high.

On the female plants are pods, the size and shape of acorns, that contain the seed. Under cultivation, an average annual yield of five pounds of seed can be obtained from each bush. Since most jojoba seeds are 50 per cent oil, a plantation could yield 1,000 to 2,000 pounds of oil an acre each year.

The council scientists said that plans should “begin immediately” for starting 2,000 acres of plantation to be developed over five years by establishing 400 acres a year.

In time, jojoba plantations could stretch across previously untillable arid lands in the South‐western United States, many of them providing income for impoverished Indians. It was estimated that 17 Indian reservations in California and nine in Arizona were situated where they could own and operate jojoba plantations.\

“This unique agricultural product,” the council said, “is well worth subsidizing. The country's need for extremepressure lubricants, for renewable resources and for Indian economic development would be alleviated if jojoba were developed into a crop plant.”

The National Research Council's report was based on a study supported by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Dr. Milton Harris, chemist, was chairman of the committee that undertook the study.

The unusual chemistry of the jojoba seed was discovered in 1933. Until then, there had been only a casual interest in the plant.

A traveler to Baja California in 1789 reported that the “berries” were used to facilitate childbirth and as “an excellent remedy for cancer.” Some Spaniards in the area applied the oil as a pomade for their mustaches. Indians occasionally ate the seed raw or roasted. It has a slightly bitter, but not unpleasant, taste. In large amounts, it is reported to act as a strong laxative.

Few Details Recalled

Scientists at the Boyce Thompson Arboretum at Superior, Ariz., became interested in the jojoba in the nineteentwenties. They pressed oil from the seeds and used it for years to lubricate an office fan. Some of the oil was given to a dentist for use on high‐speed instruments where taste of other oils had been objectionable.

Then it wa decided to send some seed to the University of Arizona College of Agriculture for chemical analysis. Dr. Robert A. Greene, a chemist at the college, and Elbert O. Foster, a student, began the tests.

Dr. Greene can recall few details of what he did 42 years ago. He is not even sure whether he still has a copy of his research paper. In a telephone interview, he recalled using a hydraulic press to squeeze the oil out of the seeds. He ran a series of standard chemical tests to learn the molecular structure of the oil.

Fats are composed of a molecule of glycerine to which three molecules of fatty acids are attached. Waxes are composed of one molecule of a long‐chain alcohol to which a molecule of a fatty acid is attached.

Dr. Greene compared the jojoba oil's chemical structure with other known structures and finally noticed the similarity with the sperm oil. He reported, “The constants of this oil are practically identical with those of sperm oil.”

In the years that followed. other scientists confirmed and refined Dr. Greene's findings. But as long as the supply of sperm oil seemed plentiful. there was no great rush to capitalize on the discovery.

The jojoba attracted many advocates, however. The University of Arizona Office of Arid Lands Studies has begun publishing a periodical called “Jojoba Happenings.” There has been an international scientific conference on the jojoba, and another is planned for next year.

Some advocates, like Dr. Thomas K. Miwa of the Department of Agriculture, are lyrical about the jojoba. “I have looked at it as a noble oil, like liquid gold,” he said.


From Wikipedia:

Jojoba

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jojoba
Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) shrub
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom:Plantae
Clade:Tracheophytes
Clade:Angiosperms
Clade:Eudicots
Order:Caryophyllales
Family:Simmondsiaceae
Genus:Simmondsia
Nutt.
Species:
S. chinensis
Binomial name
Simmondsia chinensis
Synonyms[1]
List

Jojoba (/həˈhoÊŠbÉ™/ botanical nameSimmondsia chinensis) – also commonly called  goat nutdeer nutpignutwild hazelquinine nutcoffeeberry, and gray box bush[2] – is an evergreen, dioecious shrub native to the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico. Simmondsia chinensis is the sole species of the family Simmondsiaceae, placed in the order Caryophyllales.

Jojoba is grown commercially in its area of origin and in other (semi-)arid regions to produce jojoba oil, a liquid wax ester extracted from its seed.

Distribution

The plant is a native shrub of the Sonoran Desert,[3]Colorado DesertBaja California desert, and California chaparral and woodlands habitats in the Peninsular Ranges and San Jacinto Mountains. It is found in southern CaliforniaArizona, and Utah (U.S.), and Baja California state (Mexico).

Jojoba is endemic to North America, and occupies an area of approximately 260,000 square kilometers (100,000 sq mi) between latitudes 25° and 31° North and between longitudes 109° and 117° West.[3]

Description

Simmondsia chinensis, or jojoba, typically grows to 1–2 meters (3.3–6.6 ft) tall, with a broad, dense crown, but there have been reports of plants as tall as 3 meters (9.8 ft).[3]

The leaves are opposite, ovalish in shape, 2–4 centimeters (0.79–1.57 in) long and 1.5–3 centimeters (0.59–1.18 in) broad, thick, waxy, and glaucous gray-green in color.[4] Jojoba is an evergreen, but it sometimes shed its leaves as a response to severe droughts.[2]

The flowers are small and greenish-yellow, with 5–6 sepals and no petals. The plant typically blooms from March to May.[4]

Reproduction

Each plant is dioecious, with hermaphrodites being extremely rare.[2] In the wild, the sexes appear in the ratio of 5 males for 1 female.[5] The fruit is an acorn-shaped ovoid, three-angled capsule 1–2 centimeters (0.39–0.79 in) long, partly enclosed at the base by the sepals. The mature seed is a hard oval that is dark brown and contains an oil (liquid wax) content of approximately 54%. An average-sized bush produces 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of pollen, to which few humans are allergic.[2]

The female plants produce seed from flowers pollinated by the male plants. Jojoba leaves have an aerodynamic shape, creating a spiral effect, which brings wind-borne pollen from the male flower to the female flower.[?] Even though the male flowers are attractive for bees and are a pollen source, jojoba is anemophilous because its female flowers are not attractive to pollinators.[6] In the Northern Hemisphere, pollination occurs during February and March. In the Southern Hemisphere, pollination occurs during August and September.[?]

Genetics

The jojoba genome was sequenced in 2020 and reported to be 887-Mb, consisting of 26 chromosomes and is predicted to have 23,490 protein-coding genes.[7] Somatic cells of jojoba are tetraploid; the number of chromosomes is 2n = 4x = 52.[8]

Taxonomy

Despite its scientific name Simmondsia chinensis, the plant is not native to China. The botanist Johann Link originally named the species Buxus chinensis, after misreading a collection label "Calif", referring to California, as "China". Jojoba was collected again in 1836 by Thomas Nuttall who described it as a new genus and species in 1844, naming it Simmondsia californica, but priority rules require that the original specific epithet be used.

The common name "jojoba" originated from the Oʼodham name Hohowi.[2] The common name should not be confused with the similarly written jujube (Ziziphus zizyphus), an unrelated plant species, which is commonly grown in China.

Production

The United States is the largest producer of jojoba oil, followed by Mexico. Due to its economic potential, the plant has been cultivated for over 30 years in several countries. Jojoba oil production has increased significantly and is expected to continue growing due to rising demand, particularly in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries.

Jojoba has no significance in the global food system, as it is a non-edible plant with no notable nutritional value. Various cultivars such as 'Benzioni' and 'Hazerim' are available, known for their high yields.[9]

Uses

Jojoba oil in a clear glass vial

Jojoba foliage provides year-round food for many animals, including deerjavelinabighorn sheep, and livestock. Its seeds are eaten by squirrels, rabbits, other rodents, and larger birds.

Only Bailey's pocket mouse, however, is known to be able to digest the wax found inside the jojoba seed. In large quantities, jojoba seed meal is toxic to many mammals. Later this effect was found to be due to simmondsin, which inhibits hunger. The indigestible wax acts as a laxative in humans.

Jojoba oil is highly valued in the cosmetics industry due to its similarity to human sebum. Consistent use of jojoba oil is thought to help regulate the skin’s oil production. Additionally, it has a longer shelf life than other natural oils, making it a durable ingredient in skincare products. Medically, jojoba oil can relieve headaches, throat inflammation, and treat wounds. It has anti-inflammatoryantimicrobialantifungal, and insecticidal properties. After oil extraction, the leftover jojoba meal can be used as a low-cost livestock feed. Jojoba leaves also contain antioxidant flavonoids, which have been studied for their potential in treating asthmainflammation, and cancer.[10]

Native American uses

Native Americans first made use of jojoba. During the early 18th century  Jesuit missionaries on the Baja California Peninsula observed indigenous peoples heating jojoba seeds to soften them. They then used a mortar and pestle to create a salve or buttery substance. The latter was applied to the skin and hair to heal and condition. The O'odham people of the Sonoran Desert treated burns with an antioxidant salve made from a paste of the jojoba seed.[2]

Native Americans also used the salve to soften and preserve animal hides. Pregnant women ate jojoba seeds, believing they assisted during childbirth. Hunters and raiders ate jojoba on the trail to keep hunger at bay.

The Seri, who utilize nearly every edible plant in their domain, do not regard the seeds as real food and in the past ate it only in emergencies.[2]

Introduction to Europe

Archibald Menzies was the botanist with the Vancouver Expedition that arrived in Santa Barbara, California in November 1793. He was given fruit and plants of the jojoba by padre of the San Diego Mission. These survived the voyage back to the UK and were planted in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew near London.[11]: 408 

Contemporary uses

Wild jojoba seed market on the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation in Arizona

Jojoba is grown for the liquid wax, commonly called jojoba oil, in its seeds.[12] The oil is rare in that it is an extremely long (C36–C46) straight-chain wax ester and not a triglyceride, making jojoba and its derivative jojoba estersmore similar to whale oil than to traditional vegetable oils. Jojoba oil has also been discussed as a possible biodieselfuel,[13][14][15] but it cannot be cultivated on a scale to compete with traditional fossil fuels, so its use is restricted to personal care products.[16]

Cultivation

Plantations of jojoba have been established in a number of desert and semi-desert areas, predominantly in Argentina, Australia, Israel, Mexico, Peru and the United States. It is currently the Sonoran Desert's second most economically valuable native plant (overshadowed only by Washingtonia filifera—California fan palms, used as ornamental trees).

Jojoba prefers light, coarsely textured soils. Good drainage and water penetration is necessary. It tolerates salinity and nutrient-poor soils. Soil pH should be between 5 and 8.[17]Jojoba grows best in young, coarse soils with minimal profile development. These soils, primarily derived from acid igneous materials, are typically found on slopes exceeding 3 up to over 30 percent. On north-facing slopes is the moisture retention often better and can thus be preferred of the jojoba especially for the youth development.[18]

High temperatures are tolerated by jojoba, but frost can damage or kill plants.[19] Jojoba can endure extreme temperature, with summer temperatures up to 46 °C. However, they can on the other hand experience leaf damage in cold conditions. The seedlings are more vulnerable, suffering damage or death at temperatures between three to nine degrees below freezing.[20]Factors such as drought, freezing conditions, and biotic pressures can significantly impact seedling survival. Jojoba thrives at various elevations, ranging from sea level to lower mountain slopes. In Arizona's Sonoran Desert, it is commonly found between 600 and 1300 m. This elevation range provides an ideal environment for jojoba, characterized by well-drained, dry slopes or along wadis, where water runoff can support plant growth.[21]

Requirements are minimal, so jojoba plants do not need intensive cultivation. Weed problems only occur during the first two years after planting and there is little damage by insects. 

Jojoba is well-suited for areas with low annual precipitation, typically flourishing where it exceeds 355mm annually. But it is possible to grow and survive for jojoba with a precipitation below 100mm. The optimal range for precipitation is between 450 and 500mm, which provides the necessary moisture for growth. But during the seed development a sufficient water availability is necessary.[22] Supplemental irrigation could maximize production where rainfall is less than 400 mm.[17] There is no need for high fertilisation, but, especially in the first year, nitrogen increases growth.[23] Jojoba is normally harvested by hand because seeds do not all mature in the same time. Yield is around 3.5 t/ha depending on the age of the plantation.[17]

Selective breeding is developing plants that produce more beans with higher wax content, as well as other characteristics that will facilitate harvesting.[2]

By selecting appropriate elevations and ensuring proper water management, farmers can establish successful jojoba plantations that yield high-quality oil. As interest in sustainable agriculture grows, jojoba represents a promising crop for arid regions, providing economic benefits while thriving in challenging environments.[24] Its ability to withstand high salinity up to 12 ds [m−1 at pH 9) (deciSiemens or ECe Salt tolerance of crops) and the high value of jojoba products make jojoba an interesting plant for the use of desertification control. It has been used to combat and prevent desertification in the Thar Desert in India.[25]

Research continues on options to further increase yields. There are already findings on the types of pruning techniques for the bushes, which are expected to make a difference in yields.[26]

Processing technology

Jojoba oil is traditionally extracted by mechanically pressing the seeds, often with the use of hexane to maximize yield, resulting in a typical oil extraction of 35–43%. Other methods using organic solvents like chloroform or isopropanol can increase the yield to up to 55%.

A more environmentally friendly, but more expensive, method is supercritical CO2 extraction. This method can be enhanced by adding co-solvents such as ethanol.

Transesterification is used to convert jojoba oil into biodiesel, where the oil reacts with alcohol(e.g., methanol) in the presence of a catalyst (e.g., sodium hydroxide). Both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts can be used, as well as enzymatic catalysts, which are more environmentally friendly but costlier.[27]

Molecular breeding

Jojoba is a dioecious plant, which brings one of its main challenges. Only the female bushes bear seeds that can be used for jojoba oil production. The sex of the plant is only visible to the eye after flowering (3-4 years after planting).[28] A proportion of 10% male plants is required in a field for efficient production. About 50% of the plants grown from seed are male. This genetic heterogeneity makes commercial cultivation questionable. Therefore, vegetative propagation is preferred to ensure homogeneous and high-yielding genotypes. To differentiate between male and female plants, several Molecular marker have been developed.[29]

Agrawal et al. (2007) [5] identified the sex-specific Random amplification of polymorphic DNAGenetic marker OPG-5, a base segment of 1400 bp, which only occurs in male plants. Agarwal et al. (2011) [30] found additional markers at approximately 525 bp and 325 bp, specific to male plants, using the Amplified fragment length polymorphism method and the primers EcoRI-GC/MseI-GCG and EcoRI-TAC/MseI-GCG. Additionally, a female-specific marker was found at approximately 270 bp with the primers EcoRI-TAC/MseI-GCG. Gender-specific Microsatellitemarkers were also discovered.

Over the past two decades, a number of Genetic marker have been developed that help determine the sex of the plant, thereby reducing the risk for farmers by ensuring more accurate propagation of female plants.[29]

References

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